山のあなたに「幸」は住むのか？第3章　Australia and Life Satisfaction

Chapter 1. Reasons for High Life Satisfaction

Australia consistently ranks high in life satisfaction, due not only to economic prosperity but also to psychological and societal factors that support well-being. This section highlights ten key reasons behind these outcomes.

Table1　Ten Key Reasons for High Life Satisfaction

1. Strong and Stable Economy

A strong and stable economy has long been a defining feature of the country, with relatively low unemployment rates—currently around 4%—and historically high household disposable incomes. However, recent economic challenges, including inflation and higher interest rates, have placed financial strain on some households. The widespread reliance on variable mortgage rates has further intensified the impact of central bank policy changes. Despite these fluctuations, living standards remain high, supported by robust healthcare, education, and social services.

2. Good Governance

A transparent and established democratic system underpins national stability. Influenced by both the British Westminster system and elements of American governance, the political structure ensures regular federal, state, and local elections. Mandatory voting enhances civic participation, reinforcing political engagement across the population. Unlike many nations that experience governmental instability or abrupt shifts in leadership, the country benefits from a steady political climate, which fosters a sense of security and trust in public institutions.

3. High Standard of Living

In addition to stable economic and political conditions, the country offers a relatively high standard of living. It is important to note that a high GDP does not automatically translate to equitable living conditions; income inequality in Australia has grown over time. However, it remains within a moderate range by international standards, though experiences vary across population groups. Crucially, access to healthcare, education, and social services is firmly in place, forming the foundation of the country’s overall living standards.

4. Health and Longevity

Although Australia has evolved from its earlier model as a social democratic state, it continues to offer a relatively high standard of living, despite current concerns about the rising cost of living. Life expectancy remains high, supported by a robust healthcare infrastructure. The country operates a hybrid healthcare system, combining a strong public healthcare framework with a complementary private sector. In addition, public health initiatives are widely implemented and generally supported. An active, outdoor-oriented lifestyle is also a common feature of everyday life, contributing to overall health and longevity.

5. Multicultural Society

Australia positions itself as a multicultural nation that aspires to inclusivity. While acknowledging that challenges and limitations remain, it is reasonable to observe that, in comparison to some other countries, positive efforts have been made toward fostering social inclusion and diversity. This report does not aim to portray an overly optimistic view, but rather to offer a balanced perspective that recognizes both strengths and areas for improvement. A more detailed examination of multicultural policies and societal dynamics will be provided in a later section.

6. Education and Opportunities

An education system provides access to both public and private schooling, with significant progress made in high school completion rates since the 1980s. A particularly notable feature is the high rate of progression to tertiary education: government-funded technical colleges (TAFE) and globally recognized universities have supported consistently high levels of post-secondary enrollment and attainment. At the same time, policy discussions continue to emphasize improvements in early childhood education, with recent funding initiatives aimed at expanding access to preschool programs.

7. Safety and Security

Crime rates remain relatively low by global standards, supported by a strong law enforcement system. However, regional disparities exist, particularly in areas with marginalized Indigenous communities, where economic and social challenges contribute to higher crime rates. Perceptions of safety can vary depending on demographic factors such as gender, though national surveys generally reflect a high sense of personal security among residents.

8. Natural Environment and Liveable Cities

While Australia is known for its vast natural landscapes, the majority of the population lives in urban areas, particularly along the East Coast. Cities such as Melbourne and Sydney are frequently ranked in global livability assessments, reflecting their infrastructure, public services, and economic opportunities. Although the natural environment remains an important aspect of national identity, daily life for most residents is shaped by urban living and city planning.

9. Work-Life Balance

Although Australia is sometimes stereotyped as a country where people do not work hard, the reality reflects a strong emphasis on balancing productivity with leisure. People in Australia tend to work with focus and efficiency, while also valuing personal time and recreation. Standard employment conditions provide salaried employees with four weeks of annual leave, with additional time off commonly taken during the summer and holiday season. The period from late December through January, often called the “silly season,” is characterized by extended leisure and celebrations. Over the past several decades, changes in workforce demographics, including increased participation by women and evolving employment expectations, have further supported more flexible working arrangements, reinforcing a culture that values both commitment to work and time for life outside it.

10. Social Connections

Community engagement contributes to social cohesion, particularly during times of crisis, such as natural disasters. Volunteer networks play an active role in disaster response, local sports programs, and various community initiatives. A tradition of social participation fosters a sense of belonging and mutual support, which can positively impact well-being. While the country has established social and economic structures, challenges such as economic inequality and regional disparities remain.

Chapter 2. Policies Contributing to Life Satisfaction

Several major policy areas, including healthcare, education, employment practices, environmental protection, and housing, affect life satisfaction in Australia. These policies reflect both the strength of the country’s social infrastructure and ongoing political debates about sustainability and accessibility.

In addition, labor protections, public services, infrastructure, and social justice policies in Australia play a crucial role in shaping the country’s socio-economic landscape and reflect broader societal expectations regarding government responsibility and public welfare.

1. Universal Healthcare (Medicare)

The national healthcare system, known as Medicare, provides universal access to public medical services through hospitals and community-based care. Funded by the federal government through income taxation, the system also includes a Medicare levy, requiring higher earners to contribute more. While the public system ensures access to essential healthcare, some medical practitioners charge additional fees, creating out-of-pocket costs for patients. A private healthcare system operates alongside Medicare, offering those who can afford it greater choice in services and reduced wait times.

The coexistence of public and private healthcare in Australia remains a subject of political debate, particularly regarding equity, access, and funding sustainability. Nevertheless, the public’s expectation for accessible and government-supported healthcare remains a firmly embedded feature of the Australian policy landscape.

2. Social Safety Net and Welfare Policies

A comprehensive welfare system supports individuals in need, reflecting the country’s history as a social democratic state. One of the most prominent programs is the National Disability Insurance Scheme (NDIS), which provides assistance to people living with disabilities and is discussed in a later section. While widely accepted as essential, ongoing discussions focus on ensuring its long-term affordability and effectiveness. In general, political debates surrounding welfare programs center not on their existence, but on how they should be funded.

3. Education Accessibility and Higher Education Policies

A public education system ensures free primary and secondary schooling, with additional government support available for higher education opportunities. University students can access government loan schemes, such as the Higher Education Contribution Scheme (HECS), which allows for deferred tuition payments. Recent political discussions have focused on reducing student loan debt to further improve access to higher education. As the federal election approaches, the Labor government has made debt relief for students a key part of its policy platform.

4. Fair Work Practices and Employment Standards

The labor market in Australia is regulated, with established Fair Work Practices and a significant union presence. Ensuring fair wages and addressing underpayment, particularly in sectors such as higher education, continues to be a focus. Workplace conditions have adapted over time to allow for greater flexibility, influenced by changing workforce demographics, including increased participation by women. The concept of a ‘fair go’ remains a cultural reference point, reflecting broader expectations of fairness in employment.

5. Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Conservation

Policies related to environmental conservation remain a key point of political division. However, both major political parties acknowledge the country’s vast biodiversity and the need for protective measures. The Great Barrier Reef has been a focal point of conservation efforts, with concerns over coral bleaching prompting discussions on climate policies. Regulations also exist to safeguard marine life, native wildlife, and natural habitats, though debates continue over issues such as sustainable fishing practices and land conservation.

6. Indigenous Recognition and Anti-Discrimination Laws

Recent political discourse has addressed Indigenous rights and recognition. A national referendum seeking to enshrine Indigenous peoples in the Australian Constitution was unsuccessful, but discussions about Indigenous representation and rights continue. Additionally, the legal framework includes comprehensive anti-discrimination laws aimed at fostering inclusivity and equality.

7. Housing Affordability and Urban Planning

Housing affordability has emerged as a pressing challenge, with rising rental prices and property shortages placing significant strain on average-income earners. A post-pandemic immigration growth has intensified this demand, sparking political debate, particularly over migration rates rather than its fundamental. International investment in real estate has also contributed to the housing market’s rapid growth, exacerbating affordability issues.

Although interest rate reductions are anticipated in the near future, they are unlikely to fully resolve housing affordability concerns. Urban planning efforts exist to accommodate population growth, but infrastructure development has struggled to keep pace, particularly in rapidly expanding cities such as Melbourne and Brisbane. While overall urban planning remains strong, current trends suggest that further investment is needed to meet increasing demand.

8. Fair Wages and Labor Protections

A long-standing tradition of unionism and labor advocacy has significantly influenced workplace policies. Strong historical ties to the labor movement, particularly through immigration from industrial regions of the United Kingdom, have reinforced the expectation of fair wages and worker protections. Recent increases in the minimum wage have been a key focus of the current government, aligning with a broader cultural norm that workers should be fairly compensated.

Political debates on labor policy primarily revolve around balancing worker protections with business flexibility. By international standards, wage protections remain strong, and the concept of tipping—common in countries like the United States—is often met with skepticism. Many Australians view proper employer compensation as a fundamental principle, reducing the necessity for gratuities in service industries.

9. Mental Health and Community Services

The increasing recognition of mental health as a vital component of overall healthcare has led to significant policy advancements. Since the 1980s and early 1990s, institutionalized mental health care has transitioned to an integrated model within hospitals, influenced by reforms originating in Northern Italy. Government funding supports the treatment of severe mental illnesses such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, as well as common conditions like anxiety and depression.

While mental health services receive public funding, discussions continue regarding the need for increased financial support. A national mental health strategy, in place since the early 2000s, has guided these efforts, alongside preventative initiatives incorporated into school education programs.

10. Public Infrastructure and Transport

Public transport plays a key role in major cities, even though it lacks the technological advancements seen in countries like Japan. Mass transit is widely utilized, particularly for accessing large venues such as the Melbourne Cricket Ground (MCG), where reliance on public transportation minimizes the need for parking facilities.

The World Bank has identified an inverse relationship between commuting time and economic productivity, reinforcing the importance of efficient urban transport networks. Since the COVID-19 pandemic, an increasing number of people have relocated to regional areas while working remotely, creating additional demand for improved regional transport infrastructure. However, Australia’s vast geography and relatively low population density present challenges in securing investment for large-scale transportation projects.

11. Childcare and Family Support

Recent government initiatives have prioritized wage increases for early childhood educators, addressing concerns that this predominantly female workforce has historically been underpaid. Economic arguments for investment in early childhood education often emphasize increased workforce participation among women. However, research on child development has further strengthened discussions on the long-term benefits of quality early education.

Parental leave policies have expanded, with a growing emphasis on providing leave for fathers. These changes reflect broader cultural shifts toward shared caregiving responsibilities. Workplace flexibility has also become an increasing expectation, aligning with evolving workforce trends and greater support for work-life balance.

12. Justice System and Social Equity

Legal aid services provide access to justice for individuals unable to afford private legal representation. However, contemporary debates extend beyond accessibility and focus on broader social justice issues, including the rights and legal protections of transgender individuals. While perspectives on these issues vary, open discussion and public discourse remain central to the legal and political landscape.

13. Disaster Preparedness and Response

Bushfires and floods pose significant environmental challenges, with rising temperatures and prolonged droughts increasing both their frequency and unpredictability. Historically, fire response efforts have relied heavily on volunteer networks, though there is a growing expectation for increased government funding and intervention.

The rising cost of insurance for properties in fire- and flood-prone areas has sparked discussions on regulatory measures, including stricter development controls in high-risk locations. Future policy developments are expected to address both emergency response strategies and preventative measures to reduce climate-related risks.

Chapter 3. Channels of Political Expression

Australia provides a wide range of channels through which citizens express political and social dissatisfaction. From formal mechanisms such as elections and inquiries to more informal actions like protests and digital advocacy, these forms of civic engagement help shape democratic participation and policy discourse.

1. Voting in Elections: Compulsory Voting Ensures Accountability

Australia’s compulsory voting system is a distinctive feature of its democracy. All eligible citizens are required to vote or face a fine. While not universally favored, it is broadly accepted as a civic duty and contributes to high voter turnout.

This system shifts the focus of election campaigns from mobilizing voters to persuading them on policy issues. It also allows for forms of protest, such as invalid ballots, where voters comply with the legal obligation to vote while expressing dissatisfaction with available choices.

Public criticism of government is common and culturally accepted, yet expectations for government services remain high. This dynamic reinforces a political culture that values both accountability and active state involvement.

2. Petitions: Highlighting Issues to Gain Government Attention

Petitions remain a widely used and accessible way to raise issues with policymakers. Often shared through social media, they help bring public attention to specific causes. While their effectiveness in influencing legislation varies, petitions play a consistent role in public discourse.

3. Protests and Demonstrations: Peaceful public gatherings for advocacy

Australians regularly engage in public demonstrations, most of which are nonviolent and orderly. Violent or destructive protests are generally rejected by public opinion. However, recent events, such as demonstrations related to the Israel–Palestine conflict, have sparked concern over hate speech and social division.

Despite these tensions, peaceful protest is seen as a legitimate and culturally acceptable form of civic expression, contributing to democratic engagement while upholding social norms.

4. Lobbying: Direct Engagement with Policymakers

Lobbying is an accepted part of Australia’s political process, providing a direct channel for interest groups to influence decision-makers. Alongside lobbying, royal commissions—independent public inquiries—offer a formal route for investigating systemic or historical issues, such as Indigenous deaths in custody or mental health policy.

Although policy changes resulting from these inquiries are often gradual, they help raise awareness and can lead to significant reforms over time.

5. Media and Public Campaigns: Use of Traditional and Social Media for Advocacy

Media—both traditional and digital—plays a central role in shaping public opinion and advancing advocacy. Recent efforts toward truth-telling and reconciliation with Indigenous Australians have been supported by media campaigns, including institutional reflections like the University of Melbourne’s history of its role in Indigenous marginalization.

Annual debates over Australia Day (January 26th) also reflect broader tensions over national identity and historical memory, frequently amplified through public campaigns and social media discourse.

6. Submissions to Inquiries and Consultations: Participation in Policy Processes

Australians can engage in the policy process by submitting feedback to public inquiries and consultations. Citizens may also contact elected representatives at the federal, state, and local levels.

There is a strong expectation that politicians maintain community presence, with failure to do so often resulting in electoral consequences. These practices highlight a democratic culture of participation and responsiveness.

7. Grassroots Community Organizing: Mobilizing Local Efforts for Collective Action

Grassroots activism continues to be a vital part of civic engagement in Australia, taking the form of legal action, direct action, and community-based organizing. Increasingly, these efforts are supported by digital advocacy.

Platforms like social media have expanded access to political discourse, allowing even those ineligible to vote, such as under-18s, to engage through campaigns, crowdsourcing, and issue-based movements. Debates over lowering the voting age to 16 illustrate the growing influence of youth-led digital advocacy.

8. Social Media Advocacy: Digital Platforms for Political Expression

Social media has become a prominent tool for political communication and activism. It enables rapid sharing of information, mobilization of supporters, and broad participation in public debates.

Issues like voting reform, climate action, and social justice are increasingly addressed through crowdsourced campaigns and online petitions, giving voice to individuals beyond traditional institutional structures.

9. Participation in Civil Society Organizations: Unions and Advocacy Groups

Australia has a long-standing tradition of civic engagement through unions and advocacy groups, though the nature of participation has diversified over time. While traditional labor unions continue to play a key role in representing workers’ interests, new issue-based movements have emerged, reflecting evolving public concerns and expectations.

A prominent example is the rise of the Teal Independents—a group of highly educated, centrist political candidates who position themselves as alternatives to the major parties. Their electoral success, particularly in urban constituencies such as Sydney and Melbourne, reflects growing dissatisfaction with the two-party system and a desire for more responsive and independent representation.

This diversification of civic engagement—from union membership and formal inquiries to social media activism and independent political movements—suggests a reconfiguration of democratic participation in Australia. These developments not only provide constructive outlets for political expression but also contribute to the renewal and legitimacy of the democratic system.

Chapter 4. Diversity

Australia’s commitment to diversity is reflected in its long-standing multicultural policies and growing recognition of other forms of diversity, including gender identity and neurodiversity. With approximately 90% of the population living in urban areas, particularly outside of Queensland, attitudes toward cultural and social diversity tend to be more progressive in cities than in rural regions. Multiculturalism gained formal support in the 1980s and early 1990s, notably under the Paul Keating government, and continues to shape national discourse on inclusion and equal opportunity. This section highlights seven key components of how diversity is supported in Australia.

1. Multicultural Policies: Promoting Inclusiveness and Equal Opportunities

Australia has developed a comprehensive framework of multicultural policies aimed at fostering inclusiveness and ensuring equal opportunities for all citizens, regardless of cultural or linguistic background. These policies, especially prominent from the 1980s onward under leaders such as Paul Keating, have positioned multiculturalism as a defining feature of national identity. They are reinforced by educational initiatives in schools and universities, where diversity is actively promoted, including awareness of cultural background, gender identity, neurodiversity, and LGBTQ+ inclusion.

2. Settlement Services: Supporting New Migrants and Refugees

The Australian government offers structured settlement services for newly arrived migrants and refugees, including language support, employment assistance, and community integration programs. These services aim to ease the transition into Australian society and are central to the national immigration framework, particularly for those granted legal entry through humanitarian or skilled migration pathways.

3. Harmony Day: Annual Celebration of Cultural Inclusiveness

Harmony Day, celebrated annually on March 21st, symbolizes Australia’s commitment to cultural diversity and social inclusion. Events held across the country emphasize respect, unity, and a shared sense of belonging, serving as both a celebration and an educational opportunity for promoting intercultural understanding.

4. Anti-Racism Strategy: Campaigns to Challenge Prejudice

Australia has implemented a range of anti-racism strategies, both at the institutional and public awareness levels. These include education campaigns in schools and initiatives led by national organizations, such as the Australian Football League (AFL). Public discourse on racism, particularly against Indigenous Australians, continues to evolve, with ongoing campaigns aiming to challenge discrimination and promote social cohesion.

5. Support for Multicultural Organizations: Funding for Community Groups

Australia supports a wide range of multicultural community organizations through government funding. These organizations represent diverse cultural, linguistic, and religious backgrounds and play a vital role in promoting social inclusion and community cohesion. In recent decades, public support for such groups has grown significantly, in some cases rivaling the level of support once provided to religious institutions prior to the 1950s. This shift reflects Australia’s evolving identity as a multicultural society and its commitment to supporting grassroots initiatives that foster belonging and participation among migrant communities.

6. Humanitarian Programs: Refugee Resettlement and Citizenship Pathways

Australia maintains an active humanitarian program that includes refugee resettlement and pathways to citizenship. Over the decades, various waves of humanitarian migration have occurred, including from Vietnam, the Middle East, Africa, and South America. These programs aim to balance humanitarian responsibilities with national interests, although they remain politically sensitive.

7. Anti-Discrimination Policies: Federal and State Laws

Australia has enacted strong anti-discrimination laws at both the federal and state levels. These laws protect against discrimination based on race, ethnicity, gender, disability, and sexual orientation, among others. In employment and education, such policies are rigorously applied and enforced, contributing to a legal framework that supports equality and inclusion.

Chapter 5. Immigration Waves to Australia

Understanding the history of immigration to Australia offers valuable insight into how the country has come to acknowledge and value diversity. This process has been shaped by a series of migration waves, each contributing to the cultural, economic, and political development of the nation.

1. Indigenous Migration: Arrival of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples

The first inhabitants of Australia were Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, who arrived over 60,000 years ago. They are recognized as the original custodians of the land, with rich and diverse cultures that continue to shape Australia’s identity.

2. British Colonization: Establishment of governance and agriculture

Beginning with the arrival of the First Fleet in 1788, British colonization marked the start of formal governance and agricultural development. Australia was established as a penal colony, and this period initiated the displacement and marginalization of Indigenous populations.

3. Gold Rush Era: Multicultural migration and economic boost

The gold rushes of the mid-19th century brought a wave of migrants from around the world, including significant numbers from China. This period greatly increased Australia’s ethnic diversity and contributed to economic growth.

4. Post-Federation Immigration: White Australia Policy and economic labor

Following the federation of Australia in 1901, the government implemented the White Australia Policy, which sought to limit non-European immigration. This policy reflected a desire to maintain a “white” national identity and led to the exclusion of many non-European communities.

5. Post-World War II Migration: Arrival of European migrants and infrastructure growth

After World War II, Australia welcomed large numbers of European migrants, particularly from Britain, Greece, and Italy. These migrants contributed to major infrastructure projects and shaped the urban landscape, especially in major cities.

6. Abolition of White Australia Policy: Increase in non-European immigration

The formal end of the White Australia Policy in the 1970s marked a turning point in immigration policy. It opened the door to increased immigration from Asia, including refugees from Vietnam and other Southeast Asian nations.

7. Skilled Migration Boom: Attracting professionals for economic growth

In recent decades, Australia has prioritized skilled migration to address labor shortages and support economic growth. Applicants are assessed based on qualifications, work experience, and language proficiency.

8. Humanitarian Migration: Refugees fleeing conflict and persecution

Humanitarian migration continues to be a component of Australia’s immigration strategy. This includes accepting refugees fleeing conflict or persecution from regions such as Africa, the Middle East, and South America.

9. Recent Migration Trends: Focus on skilled workers and regional settlement

Following the COVID-19 pandemic, Australia experienced a sharp increase in immigration. Current policies focus on attracting skilled workers while also managing the rate of population growth, particularly through regional settlement initiatives.

Overall, Australia’s multicultural policies and layered history of migration have contributed to a relatively successful model of diverse but peaceful coexistence. While challenges remain, particularly in addressing inequality and discrimination, the country’s evolving approach to inclusion is grounded in both legal protections and active community engagement.

Following the main lecture, the session transitioned into a Q&A segment.

Q&A Session: Economic Concerns and Taxation Reform

During the Q&A session, a question was raised about the current economic situation and taxation in Australia. This section summarizes the discussion and response to that question, focusing on how economic challenges intersect with public expectations and social policy.

1. Current Economic Concerns and Public Expectations

There are ongoing concerns about whether Australians would accept tax increases or reductions in government benefits to sustain social security systems in response to an aging population and declining birth rates. However, at present, the primary concern among Australians is the rising cost of living, rather than the long-term sustainability of the welfare system.

Despite this, there remains a strong public expectation that the government will continue to provide essential services, particularly in healthcare, disability support, and education.

Australia’s governance structure further complicates fiscal policy, as taxation and spending responsibilities are divided between the federal and state governments. The federal government collects the majority of revenue—mainly through income tax and a 10% Goods and Services Tax (GST), which is redistributed to the states. State governments are then responsible for delivering major public services such as hospitals, public schools, and infrastructure, frequently resulting in cost-shifting debates between different levels of government.

2. Taxation Reform and Political Hesitations

Although Australians generally accept taxation as necessary for funding public services, the short-term nature of electoral cycles discourages meaningful tax reform. While discussions on restructuring taxation frequently arise, significant changes remain politically challenging due to potential voter backlash.

3. The National Disability Insurance Scheme (NDIS): A Case Study

The National Disability Insurance Scheme (NDIS) serves as a key example of the ongoing debate about government services and funding. Designed to support individuals with disabilities by providing personalized services, the program was introduced by a previous Labor government and has since become an essential part of Australia’s social safety net. However, its high cost has led to recent revisions aimed at ensuring financial sustainability.

This situation reflects a broader public dilemma: while Australians broadly support government-funded services, concerns about affordability and economic constraints influence policy discussions. Economic downturns or increased financial pressures tend to reduce public tolerance for funding social programs, particularly those perceived as benefiting specific groups rather than the entire population.

4. Comparison with the United States and Broader Social Attitudes

Australia is frequently compared with the United States, but many Australians reject aspects of the American model in favor of a more community-oriented, socially supportive approach. While Australia’s welfare system is not as comprehensive as those of Scandinavian countries, there is widespread public expectation that the government will play a central role in providing essential services.

At the same time, there is a general understanding that these services must be paid for—making taxation an accepted trade-off. The public debate surrounding the NDIS reflects this balancing act, as citizens recognize the importance of robust social support systems while remaining cautious about excessive government expenditure.

Australia’s approach to taxation and public services reflects an ongoing effort to reconcile fiscal sustainability with social expectations. This balancing act is increasingly shaped not only by domestic debates but also by global dynamics. Australia’s close economic and security ties with the United States, alongside its growing interdependence with China, demonstrate how international relationships influence domestic policy choices. These international connections influence not only trade and security, but also shape domestic expectations around governance, public welfare, and civic responsibility, further reinforcing the interconnected nature of Australia’s internal and external policy frameworks.

引用を行う際には、以下を参考に出典の明記をお願いいたします。
（出典）Lindsay G. Oades（2025）「山のあなたに「幸」は住むのか？第3章　Australia and Life Satisfaction」研究報告書

脚注
* This paper is a written summary by NIRA, based on Professor Lindsay Oades’ original lecture delivered in English. * This paper is a written summary by NIRA, based on Professor Lindsay Oades’ original lecture delivered in English.

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